From the inside out they are called the mucosa, submucosa, muscularis externa, and serosa. Ulcers that affect the tract include peptic ulcers and perforated ulcer is one that has eroded completely through the layers. Copyright 1999 2023 GoDaddy Operating Company, LLC. Notice that the epithelium is in direct contact with the lumen, the space inside the alimentary canal. 2. The LibreTexts libraries arePowered by NICE CXone Expertand are supported by the Department of Education Open Textbook Pilot Project, the UC Davis Office of the Provost, the UC Davis Library, the California State University Affordable Learning Solutions Program, and Merlot. These intestinal veins, constituting the hepatic portal system, are unique in that they do not return blood directly to the heart. FormalPara Learning Outcomes . The fibers lie parallel, in a longitudinal view of the digestive tract, the fibers of the superficial circular layer appear as round balls, the fibers of the deep longitudinal layer are spindle-shaped. Each layer has different tissues and functions. Inflammation of the peritoneum is called peritonitis. Although the small intestine is the workhorse of the system, where the majority of digestion occurs, and where most of the released nutrients are absorbed into the blood or lymph, each of the digestive system organs makes a vital contribution to this process (Figure 23.1.1). Describe the anatomy of the intestinal mucosa. The mucosa is the inner layer of any epithelially-lined hollow organ (e.g., mouth, gut, uterus, trachea, bladder, etc.). The epithelium is the innermost layer and it is responsible for most digestive, absorptive, and secretory processes. Inflammation of the peritoneum is called peritonitis. A sheet of mesentery that is remnant of the ventral mesentery, between the liver and the anterior wall of the peritoneal cavity. This process of rapid renewal helps preserve the health of the alimentary canal, despite the wear and tear resulting from continued contact with foodstuffs. The gastrointestinal tract is a one-of-a-kind system. This tube begins at the mouth and terminates at the anus. 1. Instead of serosa, the mouth, pharynx, and esophagus have a dense sheath of collagen fibers called the adventitia. Bone Tissue and the Skeletal System, Chapter 12. Accessory digestive organs comprise the second group and are critical for orchestrating the breakdown of food and the assimilation of its nutrients into the body. In the most proximal and distal regions of the alimentary canal, including the mouth, pharynx, anterior part of the esophagus, and external anal sphincter, the muscularis is made up of skeletal muscle, which gives you voluntary control over swallowing and defecation. Anatomy & Physiology by Lindsay M. Biga, Sierra Dawson, Amy Harwell, Robin Hopkins, Joel Kaufmann, Mike LeMaster, Philip Matern, Katie Morrison-Graham, Devon Quick & Jon Runyeon is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted. The contractions of these layers promote mechanical digestion, expose more of the food to digestive chemicals, and move the food along the canal. The computer governs all system modules and gives instruction according to real-time analysis of feedback. When your great grandparents and even your parents were young, the mortality from peritonitis was high. The muscularis (muscularis externa) is a layer of muscle. Consider for example, the interrelationship between the digestive and cardiovascular systems. If $V$ equals a constant throughout a given region of space what can you say about $\mathrm{E}$ in that region? Blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, and nerves (all supplying the . Answer and Explanation: 1. A&P: Chapter 38 Section: Organization of the Digestive System Awarded 25 points out of 25 possible points. (d) The shells are then connected to each other by a metal wire. The veins that collect nutrient-rich blood from the small intestine (where most absorption occurs) empty into the hepatic portal system. supports avascular mucosal epithelium. ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY Four Layers of the Wall Serosa/ Mesentery The outer layer of the GIT is formed by fat and another layer of epithelial cells called mesothelium. Our mission is to improve educational access and learning for everyone. Creative Commons Attribution License Are you sure you want to remove #bookConfirmation# Also called the gastrointestinal (GI) tract or gut, the alimentary canal (aliment- = to nourish) is a one-way tube about 7.62 meters (25 feet) in length during life and closer to 10.67 meters (35 feet) in length when measured after death, once smooth muscle tone is lost. The alimentary canal is the part of the digestive system that food actually passes through (the. Each accessory digestive organ aids in the breakdown of food (Figure 23.1.2). Four compounds possessed EC50 values less than or equal to 11 M. The myenteric plexus (plexus of Auerbach) lies in the muscularis layer of the alimentary canal and is responsible for motility, especially the rhythm and force of the contractions of the muscularis. The idea of this style focuses on last years' sudden surge in popularity for plants as dcor. Muscularis mucosaThis thin layer of smooth muscle is in a constant state of tension, pulling the mucosa of the stomach and small intestine into undulating folds. 1. It is made of: epithelium; lamina propria The mucosa is the innermost layer, and functions in absorption and secretion. When viewed from above, because of internal reflection, the light source makes a disc of light on the water's surface. In contrast, parasympathetic activation (the rest-and-digest response) increases GI secretion and motility by stimulating neurons of the enteric nervous system. When you consider that the alimentary canal is exposed to foodborne bacteria and other foreign matter, it is not hard to appreciate why the immune system has evolved a means of defending against the pathogens encountered within it. The digestive organs within the abdominal cavity are held in place by the peritoneum, a broad serous membranous sac made up of squamous epithelial tissue surrounded by connective tissue. The thin filaments are anchored to dense bodies. What are the layers of mucosa? Digestive mucosa is made up of three sublayers: (1) a lining epithelium, (2) a lamina propria, and (3) a musclularis mucosae. Thus, the location of these organs is described as retroperitoneal. Arteries supply the digestive organs with oxygen and processed nutrients, and veins drain the digestive tract. When your great grandparents and even your parents were young, the mortality from peritonitis was high. It contains blood vessels, nerve endings, lymph nodules, and lymphatic vessels. The Peripheral Nervous System, Chapter 18. It includes blood and lymphatic vessels (which transport absorbed nutrients), and a scattering of submucosal glands that release digestive secretions. 1. The stomach is equipped for its churning function by the addition of a third layer, the oblique muscle. The enteric nervous system provides intrinsic innervation, and the autonomic nervous system provides extrinsic innervation. The stomach acids and enzymes work to break down food which is then released into the small intestine. Chapter 1. Deeper connective tissue which supports the mucosa Textbook content produced by OpenStax is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License . Each villus contains a lacteal. Additionally, it serves as a conduit for a dense branching network of nerves, the submucosal plexus, which functions as described below. Lipids are absorbed via lacteals, tiny structures of the lymphatic system. Specifically, the more anterior parts of the alimentary canal are supplied with blood by arteries branching off the aortic arch and thoracic aorta. The Nervous System and Nervous Tissue, Chapter 13. The lamina propria also serves an immune function by housing clusters of lymphocytes, making up the mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT). Even after development is complete, they maintain a connection to the gut by way of ducts. We also acknowledge previous National Science Foundation support under grant numbers 1246120, 1525057, and 1413739. The mesocolon is an extension of the visceral peritoneum that attaches the large intestine to the rear of the abdominal wall. In the most proximal and distal regions of the alimentary canal, including the mouth, pharynx, anterior part of the esophagus, and external anal sphincter, the muscularis is made up of skeletal muscle, which gives you voluntary control over swallowing and defecation. The GI tract is composed of four layers. Since it lacks sarcomeres, it is nonstriated. The mucosa is a mucous membrane that lines the inside of the digestive tract from mouth to anus. Specifically, the more anterior parts of the alimentary canal are supplied with blood by arteries branching off the aortic arch and thoracic aorta. In the stomach and intestines, it is a simple columnar epithelium. Hemorrhagic peritonitis occurs after a ruptured tubal pregnancy or traumatic injury to the liver or spleen fills the peritoneal cavity with blood. Lamina propriaIn addition to loose connective tissue, the lamina propria contains numerous blood and lymphatic vessels that transport nutrients absorbed through the alimentary canal to other parts of the body. Mucosa - 2. General structure of the gut wall: This cross section shows the mucosa in relation to the interior space, or lumen. Describe the separation of the thorax and abdomen by the diaphragm 4. From the inside out they are called: mucosa, submucosa, muscularis, and serosa. The gastrointestinal wall is inflamed in a number of conditions. Peritonitis is life threatening and often results in emergency surgery to correct the underlying problem and intensive antibiotic therapy. The five major peritoneal folds are described in Table 23.2. The peritoneal cavity is the space bounded by the visceral and parietal peritoneal surfaces. The mucosa is referred to as a mucous membrane, because mucus production is a characteristic feature of gut epithelium. Mucosa: epithelium - secretion and absorption; lamina propria - nutrient absorption; muscularis muscosae - increases surface area (for digestion & absorption) 2. submucosa: receive absorbed food molecules 3. The interrelationship of the digestive and endocrine systems is also critical. Hemorrhagic peritonitis occurs after a ruptured tubal pregnancy or traumatic injury to the liver or spleen fills the peritoneal cavity with blood. By the end of this section, you will be able to: The function of the digestive system is to break down the foods you eat, release their nutrients, and absorb those nutrients into the body. The Chemical Level of Organization, Chapter 3. Starting from the lumen and moving outwards, these layers are the mucosa, submucosa, muscularis, and serosa, which is continuous with the mesentery (see Figure 23.1.2). Chemical peritonitis can develop any time the wall of the alimentary canal is breached, allowing the contents of the lumen entry into the peritoneal cavity. Describe the structure and function of the pharynx. Accessibility StatementFor more information contact us atinfo@libretexts.orgor check out our status page at https://status.libretexts.org. The hard palate, a bony structure, forms the roof of the mouth. As its name implies, the submucosa lies immediately beneath the mucosa. The Cardiovascular System: The Heart, Chapter 20. Food, mucus, and digestive juices pass through the lumen, and the mucosa comes in direct contact with digested food (chyme). Also called the gastrointestinal (GI) tract or gut, the alimentary canal (aliment- = "to nourish") is a one-way tube about 7.62 meters (25 feet) in length during life and closer to 10.67 meters (35 feet) in length when measured after death, once smooth muscle tone is lost. Additionally, it serves as a conduit for a dense branching network of nerves, the submucosal plexus, which functions as described below. Consider how understanding the function of the Gastro-intestinal (GI) tract is useful in the care of patients with surgical changes for example the formation of an ileostomy. Reflect upon the structure of the bowel layers itself and describe the role each of these layers has in relation to peristalsis. Section of duodenum: This image shows the layers of the duodenum: the serosa, muscularis, submucosa, and mucosa. The basic two-layer structure found in the small intestine is modified in the organs proximal and distal to it. In general, sympathetic activation (the fight-or-flight response) restricts the activity of enteric neurons, thereby decreasing GI secretion and motility. For example, when an ulcer perforates the stomach wall, gastric juices spill into the peritoneal cavity. In the stomach and small intestine, the smooth muscle generates folds that increase the absorptive surface area of the mucosa. We recommend using a By clicking on this link you can watch a short video of what happens to the food you eat, as it passes from your mouth to your intestine. Name the four layers of the digestive tract from superficial to deep. Each layer has different tissues and functions. The mucosa is the innermost layer of the GI tract. describe the four layers of the gi tract. lamina propria. Submucosa. Previous Alone among the GI tract, the stomach has a third layer of muscularis externa. These folds dramatically increase the surface area available for digestion and absorption. The troposphere is the layer in which we live and is the layer with the most water vapor. The wall of the alimentary canal is composed of four basic tissue layers: mucosa, submucosa, muscularis, and serosa. As soon as food enters the mouth, it is detected by receptors that send impulses along the sensory neurons of cranial nerves. Rather, this blood is diverted to the liver where its nutrients are off-loaded for processing before blood completes its circuit back to the heart. The longitudinal, circular, and oblique orientations of muscle fibers. The peritoneal cavity is the space bounded by the visceral and parietal peritoneal surfaces. These lymphocyte clusters are particularly substantial in the distal ileum where they are known as Peyers patches. These lymphocyte clusters are particularly substantial in the distal ileum where they are known as Peyers patches. Which is more efficient in propelling intestinal contents along the digestive tract: peristalsis or segmentation? Intrinsic innervation of much of the alimentary canal is provided by the enteric nervous system, which runs from the esophagus to the anus, and contains approximately 100 million motor, sensory, and interneurons (unique to this system compared to all other parts of the peripheral nervous system). The epithelium of the mucosa is particularly specialized, depending on the portion of the digestive system. It is composed of two different regions: the parietal peritoneum, which lines the abdominal wall, and the visceral peritoneum, which envelopes the abdominal organs (Figure 23.4). The mucosa is the innermost layer, and functions in absorption and secretion. Explain the reason. Most of the operating systems installed on personal computers come with several client processes, but normally no server processes. Epithelial cells have a very brief lifespan, averaging from only a couple of days (in the mouth) to about a week (in the gut). Consider for example, the interrelationship between the digestive and cardiovascular systems. The lamina propria is a layer of connective tissue that is unusually cellular compared to most connective tissue. At the same time, the digestive system provides nutrients to the heart muscle and vascular tissue to support their functioning. then you must include on every physical page the following attribution: If you are redistributing all or part of this book in a digital format, The following is a description of the various types of serosae associated with the digestive system: The adventitia is the serous membrane that lines the muscularis externa of the oral cavity, pharynx, esophagus, and rectum. Lining of the lumen. Notice that the epithelium is in direct contact with the lumen, the space inside the alimentary canal. By the end of this section, you will be able to: The function of the digestive system is to break down the foods you eat, release their nutrients, and absorb those nutrients into the body. Its functions are to mix food with stomach acid and break food down into smaller particles using chemical and mechanical digestion. Also called the gastrointestinal (GI) tract or gut, the alimentary canal (aliment- = to nourish) is a one-way tube about 7.62 meters (25 feet) in length during life and closer to 10.67 meters (35 feet) in length when measured after death, once smooth muscle tone is lost. From the inside out they are called the mucosa, submucosa, muscularis externa, and serosa. Each accessory digestive organ aids in the breakdown of food (Figure 23.3). Along the way, note how the food changes consistency and form. Support/stabilize the organs of the abdominopelvic cavity and route for blood. Rather, this blood is diverted to the liver where its nutrients are off-loaded for processing before blood completes its circuit back to the heart. In the stomach. Without these nerves, not only would your food be without taste, but you would also be unable to feel either the food or the structures of your mouth, and you would be unable to avoid biting yourself as you chew, an action enabled by the motor branches of cranial nerves. There are two types of epithelial membranes, mucous membrane and serous membrane. This is the . Two B. Epithelial cells have a very brief lifespan, averaging from only a couple of days (in the mouth) to about a week (in the gut). Taste is the perception produced or stimulated when a substance in the mouth reacts chemically with taste receptor cells located on taste buds in the oral cavity, mostly on the tongue.Taste, along with olfaction and trigeminal nerve stimulation (registering texture . (5 Points) Serosa - The outer layer allows fluids to escape, keeping the outer surface wet and allowing organs to slide past one another during digestion and movement. The gastrointestinal (GI) tract is composed of four layers of tissue, known as tunics. While the colon has two layers like the small intestine, its longitudinal layer is segregated into three narrow parallel bands, the tenia coli, which make it look like a series of pouches rather than a simple tube. It is composed of areolar connective tissue. An ulcer is something that's eroded through the epithelium of the wall. By clicking on this link you can watch a short video of what happens to the food you eat, as it passes from your mouth to your intestine. Accessory digestive organs, despite their name, are critical to the function of the digestive system. are not subject to the Creative Commons license and may not be reproduced without the prior and express written Muscularis externa. Then, draw AND describe the specific structural and functional differences in the inner lining of the esophagus, stomach, small intestine and large intestine in the appropriate boxes below. Each layer has different structures and functions. . A small light source shines upward from the bottom of a $35 \mathrm{~cm}$-deep pond. Name the four major regions of the stomach in order from its connection with the esophagus to the small intestine. Both the mouth and anus are open to the external environment; thus, food and wastes within the alimentary canal are technically considered to be outside the body. The visceral peritoneum includes multiple large folds that envelope various abdominal organs, holding them to the dorsal surface of the body wall. Going from the inside out, these are: mucosa; submucosa; muscularis externa; adventitia or serosa; Figure 2: Schematic drawing of the digestive tract layers Mucosa. Two concentric spherical metal shells are insulated from each other and from the surroundings. Once food products enter the small intestine, the gallbladder, liver, and pancreas release secretionssuch as bile and enzymesessential for digestion to continue. . Reabsorption of water and compaction of feces. The accessory digestive structures include the teeth, tongue, salivary glands, liver, pancreas, and gallbladder. The parietal peritoneum lines the abdominopelvic cavity (abdominal and pelvic cavities). Accessory digestive organs comprise the second group and are critical for orchestrating the breakdown of food and the assimilation of its nutrients into the body. Compare the submucosal plexus with the deeper myenteric plexus. In general, sympathetic activation (the fight-or-flight response) restricts the activity of enteric neurons, thereby decreasing GI secretion and motility. The mucosa of the stomach is a simple columnar epithelium composed entirely of mucous cells that produce a protective layer of bicarbonate-rich alkaline mucus that clings to the stomach mucosa and protects the stomach wall from being damaged by acid and digested by enzymes. 1999-2023, Rice University. At the same time, the digestive system provides nutrients to the heart muscle and vascular tissue to support their functioning. It is composed of three layers: The submucosa lies outside the mucosa. Despite the fact that people use it on a daily basis, most people only have a basic understanding of what it is and how it works. If a person becomes overly anxious, sympathetic innervation of the alimentary canal is stimulated, which can result in a slowing of digestive activity. This season, you are right on trend if you explore the depths and layers of this often overlooked color. Each hematocrit specimen was spiked to obtain four glucose concentrations (50-500 mg/dL). The GI tract contains four layers: the innermost layer is the mucosa, underneath this is the submucosa, followed by the muscularis propria and finally, the outermost layer - the adventitia. The stomach is a key part of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, sitting between the esophagus and duodenum. Without these nerves, not only would your food be without taste, but you would also be unable to feel either the food or the structures of your mouth, and you would be unable to avoid biting yourself as you chew, an action enabled by the motor branches of cranial nerves. The mucosa, composed of simple epithelium cells, is the innermost layer of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract. Contribution of Other Body Systems to the Digestive System. A few milliliters of watery fluid act as a lubricant to minimize friction between the serosal surfaces of the peritoneum. 2023 Course Hero, Inc. All rights reserved. Aggressive surgery, improvements in anesthesia safety, the advance of critical care expertise, and antibiotics have greatly improved the mortality rate from this condition. The walls of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract are composed of how many layers of tissue? The basic two-layer structure found in the small intestine is modified in the organs proximal and distal to it. consent of Rice University. It has four parts- cardiac, fundus, body and pyloric portion. From the inside out they are called: mucosa, submucosa, muscularis, and serosa. Name the four types of teeth and the three main parts of a typical tooth. The mucosa consists of the epitheliumitself and also the supporting loose connective tissue, called lamina propria, immediately beneath the epithelium. The inner shell carries a charge +2q, and the outer shell carries a charge -q. These enteric neurons are grouped into two plexuses. Name the major functions of the large intestine. Name the layers of the small intestine from superficial to deep. A cross-section of the abdomen shows the relationship between abdominal organs and the peritoneum (darker lines). Your IP address is listed in our blacklist and blocked from completing this request. The breakdown of lipid droplets by bile salts. The wall of the GI tract from the esophagus to the anal canal has four-layer from deep to superficial, are the mucosa, submucosa, muscularis and serosa/adventitia. What structure marks the division between the left and right lobe of the liver? This venous network takes the blood into the liver where the nutrients are either processed or stored for later use. Mouth Table 23.1 gives a quick glimpse at how these other systems contribute to the functioning of the digestive system. What might occur that could result in the autonomic nervous system having a negative impact on digestion? Aggressive surgery, improvements in anesthesia safety, the advance of critical care expertise, and antibiotics have greatly improved the mortality rate from this condition. To appreciate just how demanding the digestive process is on the cardiovascular system, consider that while you are resting and digesting, about one-fourth of the blood pumped with each heartbeat enters arteries serving the intestines. The digestive tract, from the esophagus to the anus, is characterized by a wall with four layers, or tunics. from your Reading List will also remove any The small intestine has four tissue layers: The serosa is the outermost layer of the intestine. Starting from the lumen and moving outwards, these layers are the mucosa, submucosa, muscularis, and serosa, which is continuous with the mesentery (see Figure 23.3). Four layers of digestive tract walls. A broad layer of dense connective tissue, it connects the overlying mucosa to the underlying muscularis. These intestinal veins, constituting the hepatic portal system, are unique; they do not return blood directly to the heart. 3. Throughout its length, the alimentary tract is composed of the same four tissue layers; the details of their structural arrangements vary to fit their specific functions. The Cellular Level of Organization, Chapter 4. Left, right, caudate, and quadrate lobes. Each layer has a different function and quality, which makes it unique. It can also determine the presence of small or large bowel obstruction, air fluid levels, pneumobilia or the presence of intramural air in bowel loops as well as in the gall bladder or urinary bladder. Name the three regions of the small intestine from proximal to distal. The wall of the digestive tract has four layers or tunics: Mucosa Submucosa Muscular layer Serous layer or serosa The mucosa, or mucous membrane layer, is the innermost tunic of the wall. Young, James A. Extrinsic innervations of the alimentary canal are provided by the autonomic nervous system, which includes both sympathetic and parasympathetic nerves. The Muscularis mucosaeThis thin layer of smooth muscle is in a constant state of tension, pulling the mucosa of the stomach and small intestine into undulating folds. Present only in the region of the alimentary canal within the abdominal cavity, it consists of a layer of visceral peritoneum overlying a layer of loose connective tissue. A) Mucosa- The mucosa, or innermost of the GI tract, is a mucous membrane. Depending on the section of the digestive tract, it protects the digestive tract wall, secretes substances, and absorbs the end products of digestion. 10. 22.5A: Mucosa is shared under a CC BY-SA license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by LibreTexts. Between those two points, the canal is modified as the pharynx, esophagus, stomach, and small and large intestines to fit the functional needs of the body. As is the case with all body systems, the digestive system does not work in isolation; it functions cooperatively with the other systems of the body. Differentiate between the primary dentition and the secondary dentition. The wall of the alimentary canal has four basic tissue layers: the mucosa, submucosa, muscularis, and serosa. In the esophagus, the epithelium is stratified, squamous, and non-keratinizing, for protective purposes. Hormones secreted by several endocrine glands, as well as endocrine cells of the pancreas, the stomach, and the small intestine, contribute to the control of digestion and nutrient metabolism. Present only in the region of the alimentary canal within the abdominal cavity, it consists of a layer of visceral peritoneum overlying a layer of loose connective tissue. EpitheliumIn the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, and anal canal, the epithelium is primarily a non-keratinized, stratified squamous epithelium. June 30, 2022 . It is composed of epithelium cells and a thin connective tissue. What is the importance of the mesenteries? Once food products enter the small intestine, the gallbladder, liver, and pancreas release secretionssuch as bile and enzymesessential for digestion to continue. are licensed under a, Structural Organization of the Human Body, Elements and Atoms: The Building Blocks of Matter, Inorganic Compounds Essential to Human Functioning, Organic Compounds Essential to Human Functioning, Nervous Tissue Mediates Perception and Response, Diseases, Disorders, and Injuries of the Integumentary System, Exercise, Nutrition, Hormones, and Bone Tissue, Calcium Homeostasis: Interactions of the Skeletal System and Other Organ Systems, Embryonic Development of the Axial Skeleton, Development and Regeneration of Muscle Tissue, Interactions of Skeletal Muscles, Their Fascicle Arrangement, and Their Lever Systems, Axial Muscles of the Head, Neck, and Back, Axial Muscles of the Abdominal Wall, and Thorax, Muscles of the Pectoral Girdle and Upper Limbs, Appendicular Muscles of the Pelvic Girdle and Lower Limbs, Basic Structure and Function of the Nervous System, Circulation and the Central Nervous System, Divisions of the Autonomic Nervous System, Organs with Secondary Endocrine Functions, Development and Aging of the Endocrine System, The Cardiovascular System: Blood Vessels and Circulation, Blood Flow, Blood Pressure, and Resistance, Homeostatic Regulation of the Vascular System, Development of Blood Vessels and Fetal Circulation, Anatomy of the Lymphatic and Immune Systems, Barrier Defenses and the Innate Immune Response, The Adaptive Immune Response: T lymphocytes and Their Functional Types, The Adaptive Immune Response: B-lymphocytes and Antibodies, Diseases Associated with Depressed or Overactive Immune Responses, Energy, Maintenance, and Environmental Exchange, Organs and Structures of the Respiratory System, Embryonic Development of the Respiratory System, Digestive System Processes and Regulation, Accessory Organs in Digestion: The Liver, Pancreas, and Gallbladder, Chemical Digestion and Absorption: A Closer Look, Regulation of Fluid Volume and Composition, Fluid, Electrolyte, and Acid-Base Balance, Human Development and the Continuity of Life, Anatomy and Physiology of the Testicular Reproductive System, Anatomy and Physiology of the Ovarian Reproductive System, Development of the Male and Female Reproductive Systems, Changes During Pregnancy, Labor, and Birth, Adjustments of the Infant at Birth and Postnatal Stages.
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Northampton Court Sentencing, Harvard Doctoral Regalia, Tiger Stadium Home Runs Over Roof, Iowa Snow Totals Today, 2022 Va Disability Pay Dates, Articles D