& Secondly, it considers the important issue of the macro relationship of culture and globalization. If culture embeds, among other things, power relations, then the issue of programs matching or challenging dominant cultures becomes a matter of negotiating competing notions of appropriate power relations, political and social structures. (forthcoming) distinguish transmission models, where experts pass on theoretical knowledge (often indiscriminately, as discussed earlier), and process models which use more community based styles of learning. From showcase to shadow: understanding dilemmas of managing workplace diversity. It has 525 students in grades 9-12 with a student-teacher ratio of 13 to 1. It would appear that teachers have one view, government another, and various segments of the community still another. ing the micropolitic and the school culture as key components to study school improvement . He created a series of descriptors of the culture of schooling with a particular focus on how key cultural characteristics equate to the absence of a productive learning environment. The challenge for leaders, therefore, is to manage that change in terms of speed, direction or nature to support the organizations goals. (1997). School Effectiveness and School Improvement, v6 n1 p23-46 1995 Explores the relevance of culture to school effectiveness and school improvement. School Culture. & Prosser, 1998). Lumby et al. However, Cardno (2007) argues that the dilemma created by the need to give negative feedback and to save face, for example in appraisal, often emphasized as a cultural context in Chinese societies, is in fact universal. . Lopez, G. R. We present here a small number of examples in order to illustrate a range of typologies. The purpose of this book is to re-orient the current agenda in education towards learning. Culture is the set of beliefs, values and behaviors, both explicit and implicit, which underpin an organization and provide the basis of action and decision making, and is neatly summarized as the way we do things around here. Gronn, P. Internationalisation, ethnic diversity and the acquisition of intercultural competencies. Prosser, J. Schein, E. H. This unique culture will reveal itself through a number of institutional characteristics: While these representations are identifiable and mostly tangible, the illusiveness of the concept of culture lies in the fact that it is an holistic concept which is more than the sum of these component parts. As a second exemplar, in China the millennia long influence of Confucianism has led to a compliance culture, the impact of this cultural norm being a tendency to see change as an event rather than a process (Hallinger, 2001, p. 67). Culture also impacts on delivery. (1986). Hallinger, P. Processes and structures designed for a time that has passed are no longer appropriate in a rapidly changing society. P. In P. J. Washington Middle School located in La Habra, California - CA. (Eds. Bolam Ultimately, it is the cultural product/output of the school by which it will be judged, for it will be benchmarked against the cultural expectations that government, society and community have for their schools. Rowney, J. Duignan, P. Diversity and the demands of leadership. Prasad . , (2001). Good schools of this were 1965 the context of change a story of change - the Halton effective school project school effectiveness can inform school improvement the possibilities and challenges of school improvement school . The dynamic culture of A perspective on women principals in Turkey. ), Leading Schools in a Global Era: A Cultural Perspective, Peabody Journal of Education, Litvin, D. R. (2006). However House et al. & International Journal for Leadership in Education, 4(4), 309319. She argues that a school's culture 'is shaped by the history, context, and the people in it ' (p. . 420421). J. & Develops two "ideal culture" typologies (traditional and collegial) and discusses each for its heuristic, conceptual, methodological, and explanatory potential in school effectiveness and school . One consequence is that there is currently no precise means of assessing dimensions variously labeled as cultural distance or degree of diversity (Iles & Kaur Hayers, 1997, p. 107) or diversity amount and diversity degree (Thomas, 1999; Taras & Rowney, 2007); that is the differences between the culture of one location of leader development and another, or the extent of cultural differences within a leader development group. Teacher cultures have received most . Subordinates expect superiors to act autocratically. Multiple perspectives on values and ethical leadership. (2001). ISBN: 9781135277017. , How principals manage ethnocultural diversity: Learnings from three countries. The Place of Culture in Social Theory. , The Shopping Mall High School: Winners and Losers in the Educational Marketplace; National Association of Secondary School Principals (U.S.); National Association of Independent Schools. And, of course, the selection of principals by governors, education boards or regional/national education authorities is a key mechanism through which the cultural inputs to a school will be strongly controlled. Schools with strong, positive cultures feature service-oriented staffs, a collegial ambience, celebratory rituals, supportive social networks, and humor. org/10.4135/9781446219362 Keywords: Metaphorically culture is like the air we breathe; all around us, vital, and yet difficult to discern and to change. A second view, though, is that of leaders as agents of cultural change, as discussed earlier in the chapter. & (1996). ), Managing the Organizational Melting Pot: Dilemmas of Workplace Diversity (pp. (1999). Hanges, S. Newbury Park, CA: Sage. In this line, a study . (2006). It takes the view that culture can be unified and that dissent, anomaly, conflicts of interest or ambiguity are viewed. Hiltrop, J. , Stoll and Fink identified 10 cultural norms that influence school improvement (see summary in Panel 2). The processes of globalization have been a significant feature of all dimensions of society and economy over the last three decades. The processes of cultural change in schools have been considered extensively in the literature (e.g. At the international scale, for example, the work of Hofstede (1991), has sought to provide a broad general analysis of national organizational cultures. The former has received very little and the latter a good deal more attention (Gronn, 2001; Heck, 1996). Finally, we identify key issues and areas for future research. Such simple categorizations provide briefly interesting analytical tools to assist school leaders in gaining an initial understanding of their school culture, but are of limited wider utility. In part this reflects a revolt against the perceived global homogenization of leadership. (2007). Javidan Systems theory enables us to conceptualize every school and educational organization as being characterized 1) by a range of inputs, 2) by the processes in operation within the school, and 3) by a set of outputs and in each of these three elements of the system we can identify culture as a key component. | Cookies you are agreeing to our use of cookies. Exploring the cultural context of school improvement in Thailand. The implications of these strategies for leadership training and development have been analyzed by DiPaola (2003) who outlines a number of key components of principal preparation programs. L. Stoll, D. Fink. V. This paper's focus is school culture as 10. The first approach led to selection of 25 most frequently found publications on the school as learning organisation and/or learning school. Leading and Managing Education: International Dimensions. In an increasingly complex, diverse and unpredictable world, it is necessary for schools and those working with them . Heck, R. Ruiz-Quintanilla, A. Deal, T. This is but one element of the interplay of competing values, priorities and hierarchies of power which influence culture. Such a knowledge base would allow theory to be developed in a more culturally aware way. Cultural differences can be observed at a range of organizational scales. Despite the recognition that culture is an elusive and diverse concept, identifying some of the existing intellectual paradigms of culture is an important starting point. Bjerke and Al-Meer (1993, p. 31) suggest that in the Arab world: Reading, MA: Addison Wesley. Bajunid, I. Stoll and Fink (1996) created a typology of five types of school culture: moving (dynamic and successful determination to keep developing), cruising (rather complacent, often with privileged learners who achieve despite little school dynamism), strolling (neither particularly effective or ineffective, but long term not keeping pace with change), Training and educating principals for such cultural literacy is the focus of later sections in this chapter. It is also a response to the greater sensitivity brought about by the increasing diversity within many societies and the insistence that a perspective based on a single dominant culture risks sustaining a hegemonic, ineffective and excluding approach. Journal of Research in Leader Education, Taras, V. Sapre and Ranade (2001, p. 379) deplore the fact that there is very little in modern Indian education that is truly rooted in the culture, tradition and genius of its people. (2005). , Dorfman (2001). as aberrations instead of being endemic to organizations (Hoyle & Wallace, 2005, p. 116). , Educational leadership in East Asia: implications of education in global society. Their typology distinguishes club, role, task and person cultures in organizations, and enables a simple analysis of the dominant cultural themes within a school or a team. (Eds. & (forthcoming) provide a strong warning that collective cultures as well as honoring hierarchical superiority may also have an acute need to maintain self-esteem. Adler, N. None is universally applicable nor comprehensive in its utility, yet they provide a range of perspectives to assist in clarifying this miasmic concept. What is the significance of time is the organization most oriented towards the past, the present or the future? Revisiting the Culture of the School and the Problem of Change. We need to work in organisations, collectively developing an understanding of where they are going and what is important. Hofstede (2003) has argued strongly that there are measurable differences between the cultures of nations. Crossing the great divides: problems of cultural diffusion for leadership in education. Cross-cultural understandings of leadership: themes from Native American interviews. Once the inputs are understood and the intended outputs identified, the major challenge for the school leader is then to organize and operationalize the processes within the school to enable pupils to travel from their cultural starting point to the output position the school seeks to achieve. (1996). Homogeneity or diversity is the organization more effective when it is characterized by diversity or homogeneity? Bjerke, B. (forthcoming) point up the greater sensitivity within some cultures where responsibility for success is group owned and/ or where maintaining face is a high priority. In this set article, Professor Louise Stoll explores the relationship between school culture and school improvement. The key issue, of course, arising from globalization is that educational leaders will be faced increasingly with challenges to manage cultural change within their institution. It involves consideration of fit to the culture of each individual school but also the necessity to equip leaders to engage with their own organizations culture, to sustain, develop or challenge it. Categorization of groups which might be assumed to hold a culture in common is therefore problematic. (1996). P.J. Everyone expects superiors to enjoy privileges, and status symbols are very important. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. The key dimension of cultural scales is that they all exist synchronously, and they all interact upwards and downwards. Cultural fluency will be predicated on more than cognitive effort (Lakomski, 2001). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. UCEA. Instead there are history, context, process, interactivity, power relations and change. (Eds. It is characterized by very limited research at the within school subunit scale, and by the adoption of generalized models of culture from business and management disciplines at whole-school or national/international scales of analysis. Introducing human rights education in Confucian society of Taiwan: its implications for ethical leadership in education. For example, being dynamic and dependable, encouraging and displaying integrity were agreed to be positive leader attributes across all the nations involved. Hodgkinson (2001) argues that culture is always determining, subliminally and subconsciously, our value orientation and judgments. There have been strong responses to the lack of critical awareness of these processes. Cultural diversity and group work effectiveness. Gender and race in leadership preparation: a constrained discourse. & Professing educational leadership: conceptions of power. In previous papers we have described the evolution of this project in detail (Stoll and Fink, 1988, 1989a, 1989b, Fink and Stoll, 1992). , , However, his analysis of national culture has been abused to support stereotypical views and crude dichotomies, such as between Western cultures and those of Asia. Improving. We are using cookies to provide statistics that help us give you the best experience of our site. , Their description of each provides significant detail of the culture of the type. In Where preparation and development engage at all with culture, the current prevalence of content-competencies (Stier, 2003, p. 84) does not begin to equip leaders with the skills needed to relate to exogenous and endogenous cultures. More research of this kind, exploring fit not only to the dominant culture of the nation/region, but also fit to the multiple cultures within the nation or region would provide a potentially powerful antidote to programs which are currently not culturally inclusive. In the opening chapter to this section of the Handbook, Fink and Stoll review the contemporary field of educational change and ask why educational change is so difficult to understand and achieve in present times. Whittier Christian High School is a highly rated, private, Christian school located in LA HABRA, CA. Archer (1996, p. 1) contends that the notion of culture remains inordinately vague to the extent that poverty of conceptualization leads to culture being grasped rather than analysed. & Lumby, J. London: Penguin. & | Promotions Introduction. M. D. (2004). The attempt to mould culture in any direction involves alignment with some and challenge to others. Changing the culture becomes merely a question of technical fit, of shaping leadership development to align it to local culture. Dorfman Buckingham: Open University Press. Educators would be extremely concerned to consider fully the implications of assessing school students against standards imported from another nation. International Journal for Leadership in Education, 4(4), 2029. Those attempting to loosen the bonds of dominant cultures implicit in preparation and development programs research and write within the very dominant orientations they are trying to question (Gronn, 2001). (Litvin, 1997, pp. Prosser (1998) has shown how culture is expressed at different levels within an organization, ranging from the individual classroom, to teams of teachers, to the whole school. One of the best known is that applied to schools by Handy and Aitken (1986), which draws on observations across diverse organizations. Bottery, M. Wisdom gained, wisdom given: instituting PBL in a Chinese culture. Asia Pacific Journal of Education, Cardno, C. London: Sage. R. J. Sparrow, P. There have, of course, been many more attempts to categorize school cultures, each offering a particular perspective to illuminate the nature and effects of culture. Downloaded by [Teldan Inc] at 05:45 14 September 2015 . Its view of the nature of truth and reality how does it define what is true and what is not and how is truth defined in the context of the social or natural world? M. In relation to leader preparation and development culture has been framed largely as an issue of diffusion, particularly of Western values and practice applied to the development of leaders in all parts of the globe (Leithwood & Duke, 1998). (Eds. Where there is any element of selectivity of pupils, whether by ability/prior achievement or by geography or by capacity to pay, then the school will be involved in processes of cultural selection. Cultures which are comfortable with hierarchy or with the co-creation of knowledge may find affinities with process modes. Preliminary explorations of indigenous perspectives of educational management, Journal of Educational Administration, 34(5), 5073. Rejection of the cultural assumptions in preparation and development programs abound on the grounds of gender (Brunner, 2002; Coleman, 2005; Louque, 2002; Rusch, 2004), ethnicity (Bryant, 1998; Tippeconic, 2006), national culture (Bjerke & Al-Meer, 1993; Hallinger, Walker. In None is universally applicable or comprehensive, but all can serve to support an educational leaders reflection on the culture of a specific school. They suggest the spiritual values embedded in the teaching of Vivekananda, Tagore and Ghandi would provide a more culturally appropriate basis for the leadership of education than the currently Western values which relate in part to the colonial history of the nation. (See, for example, Buruma and Margal-its book, Occidentalism: The west in the eyes of its enemies.) Challenging the boundaries of sameness: leadership through valuing difference. , In recognizing that culture has dimensions at a wide range of scales of analysis, we explicitly acknowledge that it raises challenges for school leaders in relation to each of these scales. (Eds. Foskett, N. Cultures Consequences, Comparing Values, Behaviors, Institutions, and Organizations Across Nations (2nd ed.). Developing the argument further, Litvins point is that even within an apparently homogeneous group there will be wide variation in culture related to the multiple characteristics, history and context of each individual. Such decisions will be founded on a concept of leadership that embraces far more than a capacity to competently manage the technical aspects of instruction. Journal of Educational Administration, 34(5), 7497. 143158). It is "the way we do things around here" and often defined as 'the basic assumptions, norms and values and cultural artifacts of a school that . ), Culture, Leadership, and Organizations: the GLOBE study of 62 Societies (pp. By contrast Singaporean cultures emphasis on collective action and respect for seniority underpins acceptance and effective use of mentoring as an important mode of development, defined as a process whereby an expert or senior person guides a less experienced leader (Tin, 2001). The Leadership Quarterly, 7(2), 163187. 210223). In Crawford Bottery asserts that there is a risk through this that there may be emerging a perspective that defines what looks increasingly like a global picture of management practice. Processual competencies, comprising intrapersonal competencies and cognitive competencies (2003, p.84), are also needed. , Two other approaches might be more desirable ethically and politically. Changing Our Schools: Linking School Effectiveness and School Improvement. Hallinger (2001, p. 65) suggests that the primary purpose of schooling is the onward transmission of established culture and values between generations. and 'learning school'; and contacts with leading experts in this area of work which led to identification of additional literature. Bush, T. Farrar, E. In another region of China, Hong Kong, teacher contact hours are considerably higher and leadership is more firmly placed with the principal. Bryant, M. & Wang, H. Culture is so rooted in all aspects of human activity that its all encompassing nature may limit its usefulness in practice to conceptualizing leadership and shaping the development of leaders. A tentative model and case study. Dorfman and House (2004) suggest three competing propositions: that cultural congruence in development and leadership is more effective; that cultural difference can be stimulating and bring about positive change; that leadership is universal activity. While awareness of and reflection on hegemonic theory may be of use, its global dominance in preparation and development seems inappropriate on a number of grounds. School culture, therefore, is most clearly seen in the ways people relate to and work together; the management of the school's structures, systems, and physical environment; and the extent to which there is a learning focus for both pupils and adults, including the nature of that focus (Stoll & Fink, 1998) or simply the distinctive identity of . She challenges whether any classification of humans is tenable in the light of increasing certainty deriving from advances in natural science that whatever taxonomy is adopted, the complexity of human beings, biologically, linguistically and culturally, cannot be placed into easily described categories: School culture refers to a total of shared values expressed through norms, rituals, expectations, behaviour and everyday practices. Leading educational change in East Asian schools. Al-Meer, A. , The concept of culture has appeared frequently in analyses of both. A welfarist culture, alternatively, emphasizes the individual needs of pupils. School Effectiveness and School Improvement, 12(4), 385408. These are the cultural, verbal, visual and behavioral components of the school in action through which a wide range of cultural messages and aims will be delivered. While these are different aims, they both involve intercultural fluency. In a strict sense we might argue that the culture of every educational institution is unique, derived from the context in which the school operates and the values of those who have led or been part of the organization over time. Prasad ), Handbook of Leadership Development (pp. London: Falmer. A challenge to dominant cultures and the evolution of cultures which are seen as fitting will be achieved only by persistent efforts to increase the intercultural fluency of all involved, in part by increasing the evidence base, and in part through detailed translation of such evidence to impact the design and delivery of the development of leaders.
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